Worldwide Micro Electric Vehicles Market Report 2018 Essay Example for Free

Worldwide Micro Electric Vehicles Market Report 2018 Essay Micro electric vehicles are driven by electric battery propulsion with a power rating of 4-10 KWh and are generally two to four-seater vehicles. This class of vehicles was earlier considered to belong to the category of electric vehicles, but as a result of the increased demand for this product and rapid growth of the market, they now form a separate market category. Analysts forecast the Global Micro Electric Vehicles market will grow at a CAGR of 14. 91 percent over the period 2013-2018. The Report recognizes the following companies as the key players in the Global Micro Electric Vehicles Market : Ingersoll Rand plc Polaris Industries Inc. , Textron Inc. , Yamaha Motor Corp. , Canadian Electric Vehicles Ltd. , Chongqing Huansong Industries (Group) Co. Ltd. , Columbia ParCar , E-Ride Industries , Italcar, Pride Mobility Products Corp. , Shenzhen Marshell Green Power Co. Ltd. , Suzhou Eagle Electric Vehicle Manufacturing Co. Ltd. , Tomberlin Automotive Group, Zhejiang Ruifeng (R P) Industry Group The focus of vendors has shifted to finding ways to extend the life of Li-ion batteries. These batteries are now used in a variety of applications such as cell phones, laptops, PCs, power tools, electric bikes, electric scooters, tablets, medical devices, UPS systems, and transit buses. These batteries have completely replaced lead-acid batteries in several applications. The Global Li-Ion Battery market for Hybrid and Electric Vehicles is expected to grow yearly at 20 percent till 2025 Complete Report is Available @ http://www. sandlerresearch. org/global-micro-electric-vehicles-market-2014-2018. html . Covered in this Report. The Global Micro Electric Vehicles market can be divided into three segments: Quadricycles, Golf Carts, and Mobility Vehicles for the Disabled. To calculate the market size, the report considers the revenue generated from the combined sales of all three segments. . In addition, the report discusses the major drivers that influence the growth of the Global Micro Electric Vehicles market. It also outlines the challenges faced by the vendors and the market at large, as well as the key trends that are emerging in the market. Global Micro Electric Vehicles Market 2014-2018, has been prepared based on an in-depth market analysis with inputs from industry experts. The report covers the Americas and the EMEA and APAC regions; it also covers the Global Micro Electric Vehicles market landscape and its growth prospects in the coming years. The report also includes a discussion of the key vendors operating in this market. According to the report, the Global Micro Electric Vehicles market has taken center stage mainly because of the increase in government subsidies for manufacturers and incentives for buyers of such vehicles. Gasoline and diesel-based vehicles are major generators of greenhouse gas emissions. Various governments are taking an active interest in reducing the increasing emission levels of greenhouse gases. They are also actively involved in promoting clean and efficient ways of transportation. Further, the report states that the inadequate infrastructure for charging electric vehicle batteries is a major challenge faced by the Global Micro Electric Vehicles market. Also, the time taken to recharge these batteries is too long. There is a lot of scope to improve the infrastructure for charging batteries. Hence, the present infrastructure is not sufficient to cater to current demand. Inquire Before buying the Report @ http://www. sandlerresearch. org/inquire-before-buying? rname=19637 . Contact [emailprotected] org / Call +1 888 391 5441 for further information on â€Å"Global Micro Electric Vehicles Market 2014-2018† report OR for any other market research and intelligence needs you may have for your business.

Flow of a Free Air Jet Laboratory Exercise

Flow of a Free Air Jet Laboratory Exercise An investigation into the structure of a free air jet and how its velocity is distributed during interaction with its surroundings Summary Air jets have provided the basis for jet propulsion mechanisms, commonly used to provide movement in jet engines, spacecraft and even particular marine animals. In aviation, it is important to measure an aircrafts velocity, altitude and Mach number in order to monitor performance and determine areas of improvement. In this experiment, a pitot-static tube system was set up along the axis of a free air jet, and the local velocity of the air jet was calculated and recorded using measurements from an inclined manometer as the pitot-tube was displaced in both the horizontal and vertical planes. The experimental and theoretical results highlighted the same trends, confirming the expectation that as decreased (due to increased displacement), local velocity, , also decreased. A divergence angle of 10.1ÂÂ ° was calculated, and the volume flow rate varied between 0.0149 m3s-1 and 0.049 m3s-1. Introduction An air jet is a nozzle or tube from which a directed pressurised jet of air is emitted. (1) These have provided the basis for jet propulsion producing a thrust in the opposite direction of the jet as demonstrated through Newtons third law. Airs jets are commonly used to provide movement in jet engines and spacecraft, and even certain marine animals have evolved to rely on jet propulsion mechanisms. (2) There are two main types of jet; impinging and free. While an impinging jet is directed towards a surface, this experiment is concerned with the interactions of a free, submerged air jet, where the jet is discharged into an ambient fluid of similar physical properties. (3) A pitot tube is a pressure measurement instrument used to measure fluid flow velocity. (4) This is done by converting the kinetic energy of the flow into potential energy (5). Pitot-static systems, consisting of a pitot tube, a static port and the necessary measuring instruments (6), are often used in aviation to determine an aircrafts velocity, altitude and Mach number, as well as having nautical applications in the calculation of boat and vessel speeds. (7) Theory 3.1 Velocity A pitot static tube measures two separate pressures: the stagnation pressure,, and the static pressure, (8) Bernoullis equation states that the total stagnation pressure is equal to the sum of the static pressure and the dynamic pressure, . The dynamic pressure is proportional to the density of the concerned medium, , and the square of the local velocity, v, such that: (equation 1) If the pressure difference between the stagnation pressure and static pressure is applied to alter the water level of a manometer, equilibrium is achieved when: (equation 2) Therefore, by combining equation 1 and equation 2, and assuming = 1.225 kgm-3 and = 1000 kgm-3, the local velocity in ms-1 can then be calculated through the relationship: (equation 3) 3.2 Flow Rate The volume flow rate leaving the nozzle of a circular air jet, can be considered equal to exit velocity, , multiplied by nozzle surface area, A. (9) This relationship is represented through the equation: (equation 4) Beyond the nozzle exit, the velocity cannot be considered constant at all vertical points in the jet; therefore, it is necessary to integrate to find the volume flow rate. The expanded profile of the air jet can be considered circular, consisting of a series of annuli areas containing an air flow rate equal to for each respective measured value of velocity and calculated area. This is represented visually in figure 1 below. Recalling the area of an annulus as, where is the radius along the mid-point of the annulus, and considering the asymmetrical profile of the final jet requires separate measurements in each hemisphere, the total volume flow rate can be calculated through: (equation 5) Here, is the local velocity at the required radius and is the area of half an annulus, where is the radius at which the velocity was measured. Method Apparatus Nozzle of diameter 30mm, to create the uniform circular jet of air to be measured. Pitot-static tube system, consisting of a pitot-tube, static tube and axial scales,to collect the air from the nozzle and carry it to the manometer. Manometer, inclined at an angle, ÃŽÂ ¸, which holds the liquid and allows for its movement depending on the pressure apparent from the pitot-static tube system. A zero, to locate the starting point at which measurements of the fluid distance along the manometer will be taken from. A ruler, to manually measure the distance travelled by the liquid along the manometer, . Procedure The zero was adjusted along the manometer to indicate the point at which further measurements with the ruler would be taken from and the pitot-static tube was moved along the apparatus to the origin, at the centre of the nozzle, where the coordinates corresponded to (0, 0). The air jet was turned on and, after allowing sufficient time to warm up, the distance the liquid had moved along the manometer, was measured, using the ruler, and recorded. The tube was then moved along the centreline across a series of predetermined distances away from the air jet (see Appendix A) up to 500mm the point (500,0) and was again measured and recorded at each interval. The pitot-static tube was then returned to sit 60mm away from the air jet and lowered to a vertical height of -28mm from the origin where was again measured and recorded. Maintaining an axial distance of 60mm, the pitot-static tube was then raised in increments of 4mm up to a maximum height of 28mm and the distance, , measured for each step. This experiment was then repeated at axial distances of 180mm and 300mm, through ranges of -50mm to 50mm and -60mm to 60mm respectively, using increments of 5mm in both. Results 5.1 Velocity Profiles The recorded distances,, for the three vertical experiments, were then converted into vertical distances, h; in this experiment, ÃŽÂ ¸ = 13ÂÂ °. The velocities at each height were then calculated using equation 3 and graphs of velocity against height for all three axial distances were drawn as shown in figures 3a, 3b and 3c below. 5.2 Plan View The divergence angle can be calculated by forming a triangle between the edge of the jet and a line perpendicular to the nozzle boundary; see figure 4. For this experiment: 5.3 Centreline Velocity Distribution The recorded distances, , for the centreline experiment were converted into vertical distances, h, using ÃŽÂ ¸ = 13ÂÂ °. The axial distance, x, was then divided by the nozzle diameter, D = 30mm, and a graph of velocity against was plotted, as seen below in figure 5. 5.4 Volume Flow Rate Assuming is constant at the edge of the nozzle, the exit volume flow rate can be calculated through equation 4: m3s-1 Beyond the nozzle exit, values for, the annulus width, and , the outer radius, were required to calculate volume flow rate. The values for were 4mm at an axial distance of 60mm, and 5mm at axial distances of 180mm and 300mm, and values for corresponded to the radial distances; these can be found in Appendices B, C and D. Using equation 5, the volume flow rates were found at x = 2D, x = 6D and x = 10D respectively, and the results displayed through table 1. Axial Distance (mm) Volume Flow Rate (m3s-1) 60 0.01925 180 0.034475 300 0.048705 A graph of volume flow rate against axial distance was then plotted for comparison; see figure 6 below. 6.1 Structure of the Air Jet An air jet is comprised of three important regions: the core, the mixing region and the edge or boundary. Within the core, the velocity does not vary significantly from the nozzle exit speed. From the measurements in this experiment, this region exists up to around 180mm along the centreline (see figure 5). Outside of the core, illustrated in figure 4, the mixing region is encountered. Throughout this region, the local velocity,, is less than the exit velocity, , due to the reaction of the air jet with the ambient fluid. The edge or boundary of the jet represents the radial distance at which the local velocity is equal to zero at each centreline distance. The edge of the jet increases linearly at a rate dependent on the divergence angle, measured to be 10.1ÂÂ ° in this experiment. This is similar to the universal value for the divergence of a jet of 11.8ÂÂ °, which is independent of nozzle diameter, discharge speed or the medium involved. (10) 6.2 Diameter of the Air Jet From the plan view illustrated in figure 4, it can clearly be seen that the air jet spreads out as axial distance increases. This occurs as a consequence of the significant velocity difference between the jet and the ambient fluid, which creates a highly unstable shear layer at the edge of the jet. This shear layer is subject to large variance in local velocities, generating strong turbulent fluctuations which subsequently entrain the ambient fluid into the path of the jet, increasing the mixing of the two fluids. As a consequence of both the turbulent fluctuations and the entrainment of the ambient fluid, the shear layer continues to be pushed outwards as the jet flows downstream. (11) 6.3 Centreline Volume Distribution Figure 5, above, clearly illustrates that up to a value of = 6, the velocity along the centreline varies very little, with a range of 0.833 ms-1. This region is known as the core, where. The only source of momentum when the jet exits the nozzle is from the jet itself, as the surrounding fluid is at rest. The absence of external forces acting on the jet suggests that the centreline velocity will remain constant as distance increases. (11) Beyond an axial distance of 180mm, the velocity follows an inversely proportional relationship with distance, decreasing at a rate of (where k is an unknown constant). This occurs when the core of the jet interacts with entrained ambient fluid caused by significant velocity fluctuations at the edge of the jet, decreasing the velocity of the fluid as discussed in section 5.2. Due to the interaction between two different fluid flows, the region in which this occurs is referred to as the mixing region. 6.4 Volume Flow Rate Figure 6 suggests that volume flow rate increases linearly with axial distance, rising from 0.015m3s-1 at the nozzle exit to 0.049m3s-1 at an axial distance of 300mm. From section 4.4, it is known that the volume flow rate is a function of the jet area and local velocities across the diameter. Due to conservation of momentum, it is expected that as the area increases, the velocity decreases such that the volume flow rate remains constant across all axial distances. However, the increase in volumetric flow is a result of entrainment of the stationary surrounding fluid. The turbulent flow caused by the velocity fluctuations in the shear layers contributes to an increased local velocity across the diameter of the jet, increasing volume flow rate. 6.5 Experimental Errors and Uncertainties Although this experiment has successfully demonstrated the characteristics of a free air jet as highlighted in this discussion section, numerous errors and uncertainties were still encountered throughout the experiment which could have had a potentially significant effect on the results obtained. One of the most common sources of uncertainty was the use of a ruler to measure the distance of the fluid along the manometer. This combined human error, due to the estimation of both the zero position and the final position of the fluid meniscus with systematic error, as a consequence of the ruler measuring with an uncertainty of ÂÂ ±1mm and therefore, accurate measurements for were not obtained. Similarly, the location of the necessary axial and radial positions for the pitot-tube were subject to a similar human error. The fluid in the manometer also contained several air bubbles prior to the experiment; this is a systematic error as it would subsequently affect every manometer dista nce reading. Therefore, it is possible that the results obtained for could consistently higher than expected due to the presence of these air bubbles in the fluid. The final significant error involved in this experiment was the random error associated with the changing position of the static tube. For a set axial and radial positioning of the pitot-static tube, changing the height and geometry of the static tube caused the manometer reading to alter slightly as well. Although efforts were made to maintain the location of this tube, there is still the possibility it could have caused sporadic errors in the results. To conclude, the experiment outlined in this report was successful in demonstrating the interactions of a free air jet with an ambient fluid and, subsequently, the effects of the displacement of the pitot-tube on the local velocity along the centreline and throughout the mixing region. The decreasing local velocity as displacement increased was found to be a result of turbulent fluctuations causing entrainment of ambient fluid into the path of the jet. In the experiment, the maximum velocity was found to be around 20ms-1 for a distance of 180mm along the centreline of the jet and the divergence angle was calculated to be 10.1ÂÂ °. These results were useful in introducing the basic structure of an air jet, which comprises of three main regions: the core, the mixing region, and the edge. The slight discrepancy between the measured divergence angle and the universal angle of 11.8ÂÂ ° (9) can be considered due to the inaccuracy in measuring the position of the fluid meniscus in the manometer using a ruler, producing potentially unreliable results. The findings from this experiment are statistically insignificant due to the nature of the apparatus used and the various possible sources of error, both systematic, due to air bubbles present in the manometer fluid, and human, arising from the use of a ruler for distance measurements. However, the experiment was useful in demonstrating the interactions of an air jet with its surroundings, as well as introducing the concept of internal structures within a free air jet. [1] Oxford Dictionaries, Air Jet, [Online]. Available: https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/air_jet. [Accessed 24 March 2017]. [2] LearningInfo, Which Animals use Jet Propulsion, [Online]. Available: http://www.learninginfo.org/sandbox/which-animals-use-jet-propulsion.htm. [Accessed 25 March 2017]. [3] W. Grassi, Impinging Jets, 2 February 2011. [Online]. Available: http://www.thermopedia.com/content/872/ . [Accessed 24 March 2017]. [4] Wikipedia, Pitot Tube, [Online]. Available: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pitot_tube. [Accessed 25 March 2017]. [5] Efunda, Pitot Tubes Theory, [Online]. Available: http://www.efunda.com/designstandards/sensors/pitot_tubes/pitot_tubes_theory.cfm. [Accessed 26 March 2017]. [6] P. Willits, Guided Flight Discovery Private Pilot, Jeppesen Sanderson, 2004. [7] S. Houston, Pitot Static System, 13 October 2016. [Online]. Available: https://www.thebalance.com/aircraft-systems-pitot-static-system-282605. [Accessed 26 March 2017]. [8] I. Gursal, Flow of a Free Air Jet, University of Bath, Bath, 2017. [9] Khan Academy, What is Volume Flow Rate, [Online]. Available: https://www.khanacademy.org/science/physics/fluids/fluid-dynamics/a/what-is-volume-flow-rate. [Accessed 27 March 2017]. [10] Dartmouth College, Turbulent Jets, [Online]. Available: https://thayer.dartmouth.edu/~d30345d/books/EFM/chap9.pdf. [Accessed 24 March 2017]. [11] Anon, Jet, [Online]. Available: https://www.eng.fsu.edu/~shih/succeed/jet/jet.htm. [Accessed 29 March 2017].

Ethics and Law in Dental Hygiene: Case Studies 16 and 17 Essay

Case 16 This case presents a very delicate situation that presents many legal and ethical questions. Do you tell your brother his partner has HIV? I would tell my brother, but the how and when, may vary based on circumstance. From a professional ethical standpoint, it would be unethical to disclose the patient’s HIV status without consent. It would violate the patient’s right to confidentiality, as it is the patient’s choice whom information may be shared with (Beemsterboer, 2010, p. 50). It could also be argued that it is a violation of the principle of nonmaleficence. By providing the patient’s HIV status to people unbound by HIPAA, you are putting the patient at risk of discrimination. This could cause mental anguish or psychological issues, therefore, in essence, inflicting harm on the patient. The most valued application of nonmaleficence is, â€Å"One ought to not inflict harm† (Beemsterboer, 2010, p. 42). This would outweigh the ethical argument th at you are also preventing harm to your brother, another less important application of nonmaleficence (Beemsterboer, 2010, p. 42). There is one professional ethical principle that I would argue was being applied. This being the principle of paternalism, stating that healthcare providers should do what they deem best for the patient according to their ability and judgment (Beemsterboer, 2010, p. 47). If the patient had a sexual encounter with the brother, and did not inform him of her HIV status, she may be arrested for reckless endangerment according to Pennsylvania law. A case where an HIV-positive person did not disclose their status to their sexual partner was brought before the Pennsylvania Superior Court. According to Pennsylvania law, â€Å"Disclosure of HIV status is a defense ag... ...w in Dental Hygiene (pp. 39-53). St. Louis, MO: Saunders Elsevier. Commonwealth of Pennsylvania State Board of Dentistry. (2012, September). Section 4.1 Reason for Refusal, Revocation, or Suspension of License or Certificate. In The Dental Law Act of May 1, 1993, P.L. 216, No. 76 Cl. 63. Harrisburg, PA, USA: Pennsylvania Department of State. Hanson, J. R. (n.d.). Fraud or confusion? RDH Magazine, 19(4). Retrieved 3 15, 2014, from http://www.rdhmag.com/articles/print/volume-19/issue-4/feature/fraud-or-confusion.html Smith, A. (2013). How NOT to commit dental insurance fraud! Retrieved from Amy Smith Consulting LL.: http://www.amysmith.biz/tip-of-the-month/2013/6/25/how-not-to-commit-dental-insurance-fraud.html Violations of Public Policy. (2007). Retrieved from Wrongful Termination: http://www.wrongfultermination.com/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=66

Essay --

Leadership, as shown in the video, is very broad. Leadership is grouping people and influencing them to work together as one in order to achieve a common goal or vision. It can either be the promoter of world peace, a powerful innovation, or even the initiator of war. Leadership, in both ways, requires someone to do what one loves to do because leaders excel in their own ways and in their own fields of interest. Every day we meet leaders, some from religious organizations, some are from political parties, school organizations, professional organizations, and others are from rebellious organizations. In the video, being a leader is shown mainly in how one reacts to the society and environment as a whole. A leader must have clear mission and sense of purpose so that he can foster guidance when chaotic opinions and situations arise. Members’ roles must be clearly defined and the relevance of each must be disseminated. A leader emphasizes the vision so that the team can imagine and follow what they wanted to fulfil in the long run. Also, a leader must set short term goals and track progress of each member or of the team. Adherence to the strategic and tactical plans requires perseverance to attain the desired outcome. Constantly achieving the weekly goals will enable the leader to track the performance of the team, effectiveness of his leadership, and how far they are from the objective. Further, competence is an important factor of successful leadership by showing that a leader must be experienced or specialized in the field of interest they have chosen in order to quickly grasp the needed information and react responsively to solve concerns and constraints. But not all are born competent leaders; some gain their expertise along ... ...at all times or perhaps right from the start, it is his perseverance and passion to stand and try again that defines how good he is and where his endeavours will bring him. No matter the odds, it is, after all, the courage that matters. Therefore, the video reminds us of the different facets of leadership – some are born leader, some are not, some are capable to lead but does wrongly, some are aspirant leaders, and some are warriors. Hence, leadership, in its broad form, has no age limits, no time frames, no rich or poor, no racial and gender discriminations, and nothing at all. The challenges, previously mentioned, are all manageable, it just actually depends how one perceives and faces the obstacles because every problem has solutions. Leadership can actually start anywhere and anytime by anyone - you just have to find your passion and courage to stand and lead.

Death Of A Planet Essay -- essays research papers fc

Death of a Planet Air pollution is a very big problem in the United States. A large part of air pollution comes from cars. The Environmental Protection Agency says, "The most polluting activity an average person does everyday is drive their car"(1 factsheet OMS-5). Most people probably aren't aware that they are polluting the environment. Maybe if everyone knew how serious this pollution problem is, they would find ways to reduce the pollution. Most pollution that is released by cars comes from the exhaust, mainly in the form of hydrocarbons(1 factsheet, OMS-5). Hydrocarbons are organic compounds ,a combination of two or more elements, that contain only carbon and hydrogen (2 factsheet, OMS-5). Hydrocarbons are released when fuel in the engine burns partially. When hydrocarbons come in contact with sunlight they form ground level ozone. Ground level ozone is a major ingredient in the formation of smog. Ground level ozone is responsible for irritating eyes, damaging lungs, and it complicating respiratory problems. Hydrocarbons aren't the only pollutants released through car exhaust. Two more pollutants released through car exhaust are carbon monoxide and nitrogen oxide. The first reduces the flow of oxygen to the bloodstream, and could harm people with heart disease. Nitrogen oxide is formed when a car engine gets hot. It contains chemicals that aid in the formation of ground level ozone as well as acid rain (2 factsheet, OMS-5). Acid rain destroys the outsides of buildings, statues, etc. Acid rain can also contaminate drinking water, damage vegetation, and destroy sealife. These two pollutants are two of the most dangerous pollutants released through car exhaust. If these two pollutants were cut down just a little bit our planet would be a safer place to live. Carbon dioxide is another gas released through exhaust emissions. It isn't dangerous directly to humans, but it is considered to be a "green house gas." A "greenhouse gas" is a gas that is associated with global warming. Global warming is the gradual increase of temperature due to human activity. Certain gases, such as carbon dioxide, methane, and ozone allow radiation from the sun to break through the atmosphere and go to the earth's surface. Global w... ... recognized sooner than regular testing, done year by year. If the remote sensing devices are used people don't have to worry about their car being tested. They just have to get their car repaired when the device says it's polluting the environment. Air pollution caused by cars is a serious problem that can be reduced by average everyday people. If the citizens of earth don't act fast, and reduce the amount of pollution caused world wide, earth will be a horrible place to live. If something isn't done soon there might not be a place to live at all. Works Cited Brown, Lester R. The World Watch Reader: On Environmental Issues. NewYurk:Norton, 1991. 97-105. The Environmental Protection Agency. Automobiles and Ozone: Factsheet OMS-4. http://www.epa.gov/OMS WWW/04-ozone.htm. 1993. 4. The Environmental Protection Agency. Automobile Emission: An overiew: Factsheet OMS-5. http://www.epa.gov/OMS www/05-autos.htm. 1994. 1-5. The Environmental Protection Agency. Remote Sensing: A Supplemental Tool for Vehicle Emission Control: Factsheet OMS-15. http://www.epa.gov/OMS www/ 15- -remot.htm. 1993. 1-2.

Is Economics a Science?

The word â€Å"Economics† is derived from the Greeks word â€Å"Oikonomos† which means to manage the house. So it means the management of a household especially in those matters, which are relating to the income and expenses of the family. After sometime, the term economy was adopted. Economics is regarded as a Social SCIENCE and not a PURE science like Physics or Chemistry because it uses scientific methods to build theories that can help explain the behaviour of individuals, groups and organisations and does not deal directly with experiments with matter. Economics attempts to explain economic behaviour, which arises when scarce resources are used to fulfil unlimited human needs. 1. It is a science because economists can experiment:- In terms of methodology, economists, employ different methods, based primarily on observation and deduction and the construction of abstract models to make experiments with numbers and data. As the social sciences have evolved there are now many different strands of investigation including micro and macro economics, pure and applied economics, and industrial ,social ,environmental and financial economics. . Economics is a science because it can make predictions Economists use scientific observation and deduction in their investigations using index numbers, base year and current year figures and past data. Economists frequently use versions of the demand and supply model to help explain events such as realty prices trends and movements. Economic models usually employ graphical and mathematical analysis to help explain and illustrate such economic processes. 3. It is both a Positive and normative science. As a social science, economics attempts to use the principles and methods of science to explain economic behaviour. This involves making positive statements about the economic world. Positive statements are those that can be verified, and are factual, such as: ‘.. House prices have fallen by 15% over the last year†¦ ’ In contrast, normative statements are based on opinion and value judgement. Statements suggesting that something ‘ought to’ happen, or that something is ‘unfair’, are normative because they are matters of opinion. For example, ‘.. the recent fall in house prices is unfair to the rich.. ’. This statement cannot be tested because it not based on anything testable. If there is an agreed definition of fairness, and it can be measured, then it might be possible to test the effect of the change in house prices on the degree of fairness experienced by a certain identifiable group of people defined as rich. Therefore, this statement is normative, impossible to verify, and based on opinion rather than fact. 4. Economics is a social science because it follows the â€Å" ceteris paribus† rule( all other things remaining the same) just like in an experiment In the real world, economic variables such as price and income, are constantly changing, and this creates a problem in demonstrating the relationship between variables. For example, a fall in price is likely to lead to a rise in consumer demand if we assume nothing else changes. Of course, for independent reasons, income could also fall and demand does not rise. The fall in price could have been counteracted by a fall in income. The ceteris paribus rule, that all other things remain the same, is used whenever attempting to demonstrate the link between economic variables. 5. Economic theories are based on facts and can be proven by deductions and mathematical precision. 6. Economics is a systematic and standardised process of studying human behaviour in the context of the unlimited need, limited resources and their allocation and hence it is a science. Conclusion- Just like all other sciences economics too is logical, rational and provable through experiments and factual data and hence we conclude that economics is a science. b) ECONOMICS AND RELEVANCE TO LAW- 5 points Economics is the branch of knowledge concerned with the production, consumption, and transfer of wealth. It is the social science that analyzes the production, distribution, and consumption of goods and services. Now the Question is whether Economics is a science or not? Law, as a social science, is closely related to many cognate disciplines in the social and natural sciences. And law does not operate in a vacuum, law works in the society and economics is an important part of the society. Its relevance must relate to the overall values of society. Economics, it is said, is the science of rational choices in a world of limited resources. And the term ‘resources’ here does not relate only to money but can be of any type. Both are related to each other such that: 1. Law and economics is the application of economic methods for the analysis of law. Economic concepts are used to explain the effects of laws, to assess which legal rules are economically efficient, and to predict which legal rules will be promulgated. For eg- Law about taxation , laws on custom duties etc,. In other words â€Å"Law and economics,† also known as the economic analysis of law, differs from other forms of legal analysis in two main ways. 1. First, the theoretical economic analysis focuses on Efficiency or economic benefit. 2. The second characteristic of law and economics is its emphasis on incentives and people’s responses to these laws/incentives. 2. As used by lawyers and legal scholars, the phrase â€Å"law and economics† refers to the application of the methods of economics to legal problems. Using the best resource available, prioritizing etc 3. Both Law and economics stresses that markets are more efficient than courts. When possible, the legal system, according to the positive theory, will force a transaction into the market. When this is impossible, the legal system attempts to â€Å"mimic a market† and guess at what the parties would have desired if markets had been feasible. 4. Law and economics are related because they both share the same assumption with other branches of economics that individuals are rational and logical in decision making and respond to incentives and punishments. When penalties for an action increase, people will undertake less of that action. For eg- Huge penalties for economic offences deters the future offenders. 5. Law and economics is more likely than other branches of legal analysis to use empirical or statistical methods to measure these responses to incentives. Lawyers have to quote figures and data and statistics to argue their cases. Hence both economics and law rely on empirical data. In the United States, economic analysis of law has been extremely influential. Judicial opinions utilize economic analysis and the theories of law and economics with regularity. The influence of law and economics has also been felt in legal education. Many law schools in North America, Europe, and Asia have faculty members with a degree in economics. Conclusion : Law and economics scholars also apply the tools of economics, such as game theory, to purely legal questions, such as various parties’ litigation strategies. These aspects of law and economics, are of more interest to legal scholars than to students of the economy.

Genocide in Bosnia Essay

The Bosnian genocide is often referred to as the hidden genocide, yet it had catastrophic effects on humanity. Over 100,000 people were killed and it displaced millions of people. The genocide occurred between 1992 and 1995. The Social Federal Republic of Yugoslavia was made up of six nations under the leadership of Josip Broz Tito. Once Tito passed away in 1990, there was a power vacuum, and politicians began a nationalistic campaign pitting Serbs, Croats and Bosniaks against each other. Hence, the beginning of an â€Å"ethnic cleansing† war (Campbell, 2003 p.511). Once Milosevic was the President of Republic of Serbia, he encouraged formation of violent uprisings by Serb nationals. Milosevic was interested in creating an ethnically pure Serb nation. Milosevic’s ambition worried the nations in the federal government; hence Croatia and Slovenia declared themselves independent from the republic. However, Croatia was not allowed to leave because it had 12% of the Serbian population. Hence Croatia became a battlefield between 1991- 1996. Bosnia-Herzegovina watched the horrors in Croatia as they worried about themselves being the next victim. Bosnia-Herzegovina held a referendum in 1992 and declared itself free from the republic. The Serbs in Bosnia were not happy about it, and they began fighting with the support of the Yugoslavian National Army. Bosnia and Croatia lacked weapons to defend themselves because the UN had enacted an embargo, thus they were victims of an endless cycle of violence, displacement and death (Schott, 2011 p.19). Serbian plan of attack entailed the following steps; concentration, decapitation, separation, evacuation ad liquidation. During concentration stage, Serbian soldiers would warn Serbians to leave the town they were about to attack and surround the city with artillery fire. The second stage involved execution of the town’s leaders, military and intelligence. On the third stage, Serbian soldiers would separate women, children and old people from â€Å"fighting group†. Women, children and old people would be taken to concentration camps, while the young people were executed. This brings me to the subject of this essay. Women were targeted in specific ways when compa red to men. Unlike, the young male soldiers who were executed, women lived longer to and experience  untold suffering under the Serb soldiers. Women were interchangeably used by soldiers as sexual trophies (Lentin, 1997). This essay analyses the genocide on a gendered frame, so as to shine light on the awful atrocities women faced in the hands of Serbian militia. From a gender frame, sexual violence in war cannot be reduced to psychological attributes of the perpetrators. Genocidal rape has to be analyzed in terms of social structures. Rape in Bosnia was systematic, since it was planned. Bosnian genocide is the only genocide that women bodies were used as a battlefield. This genocide trampled upon all women rights. The Serbian militants lacked respect and sympathy for women. The Yugoslav army, Bosnian Serb forces and Chetniks came up with a sexual violence campaign against Croats and Muslim women. They killed, imprisoned, terrorized and raped women in the hope that they would leave and never come back. The attack on women was not an accident. It was premeditated as a lot of soldiers took part in sexual violence campaign. Th eir commanders were aware of what was going on, and they turned a blind eye. The attackers used the Ram & Brana plan of attack (1991). The plan said that successful attacks should be the one carried out on the enemy’s weakest point. The weakest point during wars is usually women and children. By attacking the weakest point, they were able to spread panic and fear in the population hence Croats and Bosnians could only run away for safety (Abreu, 2005 p.5). Since this was an â€Å"ethnic cleansing war†, the Serbian armed forces believed that sexual violence against women was an act of tainting the bloods of the Croats and Bosnians (Allen, 1996 p. 23). Culture and religion played a big part in this war; hence the attackers believed that they were annihilating their culture through sexual violence. The Serbians waged a psychological warfare on their enemies, such that they believed that by raping women, impregnating them and forcefully aborting their fetuses they were cleansing them. The Serbian armed forces also carried out sexual assaults against men. Serbia, Bosnia and almost all Balkan nations are lawfully heterosexual nations. Hence by raping men, they were degrading them or feminizing them and making them powerless. By raping their victims, the victims were gendered as feminine or attached with feminine qualities of vulnerability. Apart from the psychological effects of sexual violence on women, women faced a lot of physical suffering in the â€Å"rape camps†. The Serbian forces had created rape camps as a substitute for  concentration camps, so that they would use them to sexually violate women. In fact the Serbian forces had a modus operandi for sexually assaulting women (Abreu, 2005 p.11). The modus operandi was characterized by three patterns; public rape of children and women in their villages, sporadic rape of women and children in concentration camps and lastly rape in death/ rape camps. During the three stages women were subjected to all kinds of violence. Women went through gang rapes, sexual mutilations, forced impregnation and childbirth, sexual abuse with foreign objects and family me mbers were forced to rape their women. The extreme sexual violence was meant to defile, destroy the community and to make them leave. It is obvious that the war was motivated by nationalistic intentions, but the way the war was carried out, misogyny is another probable cause of the war. Most atrocities that took place in Bosnia genocide have been termed as â€Å"femicidal† (Turpin 1998 p. 67). Bosnians and Croats have traditional cultures. Women are supposed to be pure, and when they are not pure they are ostracized from the society. After the genocide, women who were victim of sexual violence were avoided. The tainted women were no longer acceptable by their friends and families, and this was the goal of the Serbian perpetrators. This justifies the fact that misogyny could have been another reason for the war. In a gendered frame analysis, it is clear that there was feminization of the genocide (MacKinnon, 2006 p.18). In genocide, women are usually seen as universal victims. Sexual violence against women is seen as a mortal sin against motherhood. The notion of ‘combat’ and battlefields are constructs of masculinity. The Serbian armed forces believed that through sexual violence campaign, they would turn their victims powerless (Femininity) analysis of war is often carried out from a masculine point of view. However, Bosnia genocide is gendered, as it represents women as victims, sexual objects, symbolic of their nation and repositories of their families. The Serbs militia believed that by defiling the women, they would be defiling the nations (Bosnia and Croatia) Collins (1996) attempts to explain genocidal rape from a feminist perspective, he says that women are the ones who hold families and the community. Their physical and emotional destruction through rape is a symbol of destruction of the social and cultural stability of a nation. The sexual violence involved heightened sadism, for instance forceful rape with family members. The sexual violence  aimed at destroying the victims emotionally, destroying the community and imposing restrictions on women so as to control births. The sexual genocide did not only target the individual victim, but it targeted the group too. Rape as a genocide strategy destroys women’s role as mothers and caregivers, hence the pivotal source of the life to the community is destroyed. According to Mc Kinnon (2006, 187), sexual campaign was used by the Serbian military as a tool for political campaign, soldiers were to rape under orders. The sexual violence campaign was characterized by forced rape and forced impregnation. After the Croatian and muslim women were sexually abuse, they were denied abortions so that they would give birth to â€Å"Serb† babies. Forced impregnation was seen as a way of destroying the maternal community as they gave birth to the child of the enemy ( Allen, 1996 p.76). The rapists violated the rights of women through forceful procreation, which is a deliberate and a sadist act. The children of the rapists often stigmatized or abandoned as they brought negative memories to their mothers. The forced pregnancies on rape victims were seen as a way of preventing births among the Croats and Muslims. The perpetrators of rape believed that they were producing â€Å"Little Chetniks†. From a feminist perspective, the act of forced imp regnation is like imposing a social death on the victims. The women were tortured, and they did not want those children. It turned Croatian and Muslim women as gestating beings for the enemy. Stories from the war show a lot of women who recounted how they were raped repeatedly until they were pregnant, and the women wanted nothing to do with the children. Another explanation of forced rape is the fact that rape was used as a tool of biological warfare. Forced rape and impregnation meets the requirement of biological warfare according to international law (Seifet, 1996 p.42). MacKinnon also analyzes Bosnian rape by comparing it with pornography. In the 1990s, pornography was very common in Yugoslavia. When porn is common in a society, the whole population learns to dehumanize women and inflict sexual assault. Pornographic materials provided the need motivation and materials for Serbian forces. In the rape camps, women were ordered to perform for men; in fact some rapes were filmed and sold as pornographic products since they could not be differentiated from actual pornography. The films were even released in the media so as to amass popularity for Bosnian war. The dialogue s in the pornography were used to  implicate Croatian soldiers. According to MacKinnon (2006), sexual violence was used so consciously and cynically in a way that destroyed people. Once pornography was released, more Serbian forces were encouraged to continually assault women. Genocidal rape in Bosnia was seen as an ethno marker. Ethnic markers are things such as dressing, lifestyle and language. The Serbians, Croats and Bosnians had almost similar ethnic markers. Since they were a part of Yugoslavia republic, the ethnic lines had been blurred. Rape was used by the Serbs to act as a moral ethno marker, as it separated them from the Croats and Muslims. They felt that it created cultural superiority of the Serbians. In fact Serbian law was amended to include ethnic rape, and they believed that the differences in ethnicity aggravated the crime. The mass rapes occurred in places where Serbs were a minority when compared to the size of Croats and Muslims (Allen, 1996 p.19). This was a way of asserting their superiority in the region. Sexual violence was also used to socialize new military recruits. Rape isolated the new recruits from the community and prepared them for battlefield. In Bosnia, sexual violence perpetrated by new recruits occurred in front of other soldiers and the victims even know their perpetrators. The Bosnian war was used by the Serbs to renegotiate their relationship with the other Balkan nations. Rape was seen as a way of establishing new boundaries, as they felt that they were the superior ethnic group. From a gender based analysis it is evident that the legal framework did not address the sexual violence against women in Bosnia well (MacKinnon, 2006 p.89). The law blamed the genocide on ethnicity, and disregarded the fact that it was sex based. The Serb military attack on women was premeditated and executed in three stages. The creation of rape camps shows that the intent was sexually based, in as much as it was ethnically motivated. Failure by the law to acknowledge this is a huge set back on women rights. The law perpetuates patriarchy in legal constructs in violation of women rights. Failure to acknowledge it also prevents the law from addressing the genocidal rape adequately. The law is ignoring the existence and horrifying effects of genocidal sexual terrorism to women (Abreu, 2005 p. 16). This is quite cowardly as the law uses ethnicity to cover the severe harm that women suffered in the hands of Serbian militants. The law enables the perpetrators to hide under ethnic crimes, yet they committed more inhumane atrocities. The law usually acknowledges sexual  crimes, but sexual crimes during genocides were only termed as other inhumane acts. This is blatant sex discrimination propagated by the law. In conclusion, analyzing genocide on a gender framed perspective gives various explanations and perspectives on the violence against women in Bosnia. The sexual violence against women in Bosnia genocide is distinct. Many women can recount the horror they went through in the hands of the Serbian perpetrators. The violence against women was planned as a war strategy. International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia (ICTY) should recognize genocidal sex terrorism, rather than hiding it under ethnic-based persecutions (Campbell, 2003 p.509). Serbian militants reduced women as a means of achieving their goals for the genocide. Addressing this problem will help the victim feel like they have achieved some semblance of justice, though nothing can compare to what they went through. Genocide sexual terrorism should be acknowledged by the law, and the legal elements regarding it should be outlined. Using a gender frame to analyze genocide helps us learn about the psychological and soc ial reasons for rape during genocides, rather than just saying that they were raped because they belonged to the enemy’s side. References Abreu, Veronica. 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